The amygdalae (Latin Latin or sometimes Roman is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native, fluent speakers, Latin continues to be taught in schools and has been, and currently is, used in the process of new word production in modern languages from many, also corpus amygdaloideum, singular amygdala, from Greek Greek , an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, is the language of the Greeks. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical ancient Greek literature and the New Testament of αμυγδαλή, amygdalē, 'almond', 'tonsil', listed in the Gray's Anatomy Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body, commonly shortened to Gray's Anatomy, by Henry Gray, is an English-language human anatomy textbook widely regarded as a classic work on the subject as the nucleus amygdalæ)^[1] are almond-shaped groups of nuclei In neuroanatomy, a nucleus is a brain structure consisting of a relatively compact cluster of neurons. It is one of the two most common forms of nerve cell organization, the other being layered structures such as the cerebral cortex or cerebellar cortex. In anatomical sections, a nucleus shows up as a region of gray matter, often bordered by white located deep within the medial temporal lobes The temporal lobe is a region of the cerebral cortex that is located beneath the Sylvian fissure on both the left and right hemi hellospheres of the brain of the brain The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate, and most invertebrate, animals. Some primitive animals such as jellyfish and starfish have a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all. In vertebrates, the brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary in complex vertebrates, including humans.^[2] Shown in research to perform a primary role in the processing and memory In psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing the memory. The late nineteenth and early twentieth century put memory within the paradigms of cognitive psychology. In recent decades, it has of emotional reactions Emotion is a complex psychological and physiological phenomenon involving an individual's state of mind and how it interacts between that individual and their environment. In humans, emotion fundamentally involves "physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience". Emotion is associated with mood, temperament,, the amygdalae are considered part of the limbic system The limbic system is a set of brain structures including the hippocampus, amygdala, anterior thalamic nuclei, and limbic cortex, which suggestively support a variety of functions including emotion, behavior, long term memory, and olfaction. The term "limbic" comes from the Latin limbus, for "border" or "edge". Some.^[3].

Anatomical subdivisions

The regions described as amygdalae encompass several nuclei In neuroanatomy, a nucleus is a brain structure consisting of a relatively compact cluster of neurons. It is one of the two most common forms of nerve cell organization, the other being layered structures such as the cerebral cortex or cerebellar cortex. In anatomical sections, a nucleus shows up as a region of gray matter, often bordered by white with distinct functional traits. Among these nuclei are the basolateral complex, the centromedial nucleus and the cortical nucleus. The basolateral complex can be further subdivided into the lateral, the basal and the accessory basal nuclei.^[3][4][5]

Anatomically, the amygdala^[6] and more particularly, its centromedial nucleus,^[7] has sometimes been classified as a part of the basal ganglia The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei in the brains of vertebrates, situated at the base of the forebrain and strongly connected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus and other areas. The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions, including motor control and learning. Currently popular theories implicate the basal ganglia primarily.

Connections

The amygdala sends impulses to the hypothalamus The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland for activation of the sympathetic nervous system The sympathetic nervous system is one of the three parts of the autonomic nervous system, along with the enteric and parasympathetic systems. Its general action is to mobilize the body's resources under stress; to induce the flight-or-fight response. It is, however, constantly active at a basal level in order to maintain homeostasis, to the thalamic reticular nucleus The thalamic reticular nucleus is part of the ventral thalamus that forms a capsule around the thalamus laterally. It is separated from the thalamus by the external medullary lamina. Reticular cells are GABAergic, and have discoid dendritic arbors in the plane of the nucleus for increased reflexes, to the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve The trigeminal nerve is responsible for sensation in the face. Sensory information from the face and body is processed by parallel pathways in the central nervous system and the facial nerve, and to the ventral tegmental area The ventral tegmentum , better known as the ventral tegmental area (VTA), is a group of neurons located close to the midline on the floor of the midbrain (mesencephalon). The VTA, the origin of dopaminergic cell bodies that comprise the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system, is widely implicated in the drug and natural reward circuitry of the brain,, locus coeruleus The Locus coeruleus, also spelled locus caeruleus, is a nucleus in the brain stem involved with physiological responses to stress and panic. It was discovered in the 1700s by Félix Vicq-d'Azyr, and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus The laterodorsal tegmental nucleus is a nucleus situated in the brainstem, spanning the midbrain tegmentum and the pontine tegmentum for activation of dopamine Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter that occurs in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their variants. Dopamine is produced in several areas of the brain,, norepinephrine Norepinephrine (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline (BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a catecholamine with multiple roles including as a hormone and a neurotransmitter and epinephrine Epinephrine is a hormone and neurotransmitter.. It increases heart rate, contracts blood vessels, dilates air passages and participates in the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system. Chemically, epinephrine is a catecholamine, a monoamine produced only by the adrenal glands from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine.^[4]

The cortical nucleus is involved in the sense of smell and pheromone A pheromone is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting outside the body of the secreting individual to impact the behavior of the receiving individual. There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, and many others that-processing. It receives input from the olfactory bulb The olfactory bulb is a structure of the vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction, the perception of odors and olfactory cortex The olfactory system is the sensory system used for olfaction, or the sense of smell. Most mammals and reptiles have two distinct parts to their olfactory system: a main olfactory system and an accessory olfactory system. The main olfactory system detects volatile, airborne substances, while the accessory olfactory system senses fluid-phase. The lateral amygdalae, which send impulses to the rest of the basolateral complexes and to the centromedial nuclei, receive input from the sensory systems. The centromedial nuclei are the main outputs for the basolateral complexes, and are involved in emotional arousal in rats and cats.^[4][8][5]

Emotional learning

In complex vertebrates, including humans, the amygdalae perform primary roles in the formation and storage of memories associated with emotional events. Research indicates that, during fear conditioning Fear conditioning is the method by which organisms learn to fear new stimuli. It is a form of learning in which fear is associated with a particular neutral context or neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone). This can be done by pairing the neutral stimulus with an aversive stimulus (e.g., a shock, loud noise, or unpleasant odor). Eventually, the neutral, sensory stimuli reach the basolateral complexes of the amygdalae, particularly the lateral nuclei, where they form associations with memories of the stimuli. The association between stimuli and the aversive events they predict may be mediated by long-term potentiation In neuroscience, long-term potentiation is a long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously. It is one of several phenomena underlying synaptic plasticity, the ability of chemical synapses to change their strength. As memories are thought to be encoded by modification of, a lingering potential for affected synapses to react more readily.^[3]

Memories of emotional experiences imprinted in reactions of synapses Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands. Chemical synapses allow neurons to form circuits within the central nervous system. They are crucial to the biological computations that underlie perception and thought. They allow the nervous system in the lateral nuclei elicit fear behavior through connections with the central nucleus of the amygdalae and the bed nuclei of stria terminalis (BNST). The central nuclei are involved in the genesis of many fear responses, including freezing (immobility), tachycardia (rapid heartbeat), increased respiration, and stress-hormone release. Damage to the amygdalae impairs both the acquisition and expression of Pavlovian fear conditioning, a form of classical conditioning Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. The typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral response from the of emotional responses.^[3]

The amygdalae are also involved in appetitive (positive) conditioning. It seems that distinct neurons respond to positive and negative stimuli, but there is no clustering of these distinct neurons into clear anatomical nuclei.^[9]

Different nuclei within the amygdala have different functions in appetitive conditioning.^[10]

Memory modulation

The amygdalae also are involved in the modulation of memory consolidation Memory Consolidation is a category of processes that stabilize a memory trace after the initial acquisition. Consolidation is distinguished into two specific processes, Synaptic Consolidation, which occurs within the first few hours after learning and System Consolidation, where hippocampus-dependent memories become independent of the hippocampus. Following any learning event, the long-term memory Long-term memory is memory that can last as little as a few days or as long as decades. It differs structurally and functionally from working memory or short-term memory, which ostensibly stores items for only around 18 seconds (Peterson and Peterson, 1959). Biologically, short-term memory is a temporary potentiation of neural connections that can for the event is not instantaneously formed. Rather, information regarding the event is slowly assimilated into long-term storage over time (the duration of long-term memory storage can be life-long), a process referred to as memory consolidation, until it reaches a relatively permanent state.

During the consolidation period, the memory can be modulated. In particular, it appears that emotional arousal following the learning event influences the strength of the subsequent memory for that event. Greater emotional arousal following a learning event enhances a person's retention of that event. Experiments have shown that administration of stress hormones to mice immediately after they learn something enhances their retention when they are tested two days later.^[11]

The amygdalae, especially the basolateral nuclei, are involved in mediating the effects of emotional arousal on the strength of the memory for the event, as shown by many laboratories including that of James McGaugh James L. McGaugh is an American neurobiologist working in the field of learning and memory. He is currently a professor at the University of California, Irvine. These laboratories have trained animals on a variety of learning tasks and found that drugs injected into the amygdala after training affect the animals' subsequent retention of the task. These tasks include basic classical conditioning Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. The typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral response from the tasks such as inhibitory avoidance, where a rat learns to associate a mild footshock with a particular compartment of an apparatus, and more complex tasks such as spatial or cued water maze, where a rat learns to swim to a platform to escape the water. If a drug that activates the amygdalae is injected into the amygdalae, the animals had better memory for the training in the task.^[12] If a drug that inactivates the amygdalae is injected, the animals had impaired memory for the task.

Despite the importance of the amygdalae in modulating memory consolidation, however, learning can occur without it, though such learning appears to be impaired, as in fear conditioning impairments following amygdalar damage.^[13]

Buddhist monks who do compassion meditation Mettā or maitrī (Sanskrit) is loving-kindness, friendliness, benevolence, amity, friendship, good will, kindness, love, sympathy, and active interest in others. It is one of the ten pāramīs of the Theravāda school of Buddhism, and the first of the four sublime states (Brahmavihāras). The cultivation of loving-kindness (mettā bhāvanā) is a have been shown to modulate their amygdala, along with their temporoparietal junction and insula, during their practice.^[14]

Evidence from work with humans indicates that the amygdala plays a similar role. Amygdala activity at the time of encoding information correlates with retention for that information. However, this correlation depends on the relative "emotionalness" of the information. More emotionally-arousing information increases amygdalar activity, and that activity correlates with retention.^{[citation needed]}

Research using Rorschach test The Rorschach test is a psychological test in which subjects' perceptions of inkblots are recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation, complex scientifically derived algorithms, or both. Some psychologists use this test to examine a person's personality characteristics and emotional functioning. It has been employed to detect an blot 03 finds that the number of ‘‘unique responses’’ to this random figure links to larger sized amygdalae. The researchers note, "Since previous reports have indicated that unique responses were observed at higher frequency in the artistic population than in the nonartistic normal population, this positive correlation suggests that amygdalar enlargement in the normal population might be related to creative mental activity."^[15]

Neuropsychological correlates of amygdalar activity

Early research on primates provided explanations as to the functions of the amygdala, as well as a basis for further research. As early as 1888, rhesus monkeys with a lesioned temporal cortex (including the amygdala) were observed to have significant social and emotional deficits.^[16] Heinrich Klüver Heinrich Klüver was a German-American psychologist born in Holstein, Germany and Paul Bucy later expanded upon this same observation by showing that large lesions to the anterior temporal lobe produced noticeable changes, including overreaction to all objects, hypoemotionality, loss of fear, hypersexuality, and hyperorality, a condition in which inappropriate objects are placed in the mouth. Some monkeys also displayed an inability to recognize familiar objects Visual agnosia is the inability of the brain to make sense of or make use of some part of otherwise normal visual stimulus and is typified by the inability to recognize familiar objects or faces. This is distinct from blindness, which is a lack of sensory input to the brain due to damage to the eye, optic nerve, or primary visual systems in the and would approach animate and inanimate objects indiscriminately, exhibiting a loss of fear towards the experimenters. This behavioral disorder was later named Klüver-Bucy syndrome Klüver-Bucy syndrome is a behavioral disorder that occurs when both the right and left medial temporal lobes of the brain malfunction. The amygdala has been a particularly implicated brain region in the pathogenesis of this syndrome accordingly.^[17] Later studies served to focus on the amygdala specifically, as the temporal cortex encompasses a broad set of brain structures, making it difficult to find which ones specifically may have correlated with certain symptoms. Monkey mothers who had amygdala damage showed a reduction in maternal behaviors towards their infants, often physically abusing or neglecting them.^[18] In 1981, researchers found that selective radio frequency lesions of the whole amygdala caused Klüver-Bucy Syndrome.^[19]

With advances in neuroimaging technology such as MRI Magnetic resonance imaging , or nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI), is primarily a noninvasive medical imaging technique used in radiology to visualize detailed internal structure and limited function of the body. MRI provides much greater contrast between the different soft tissues of the body than computed tomography (CT) does, making it, neuroscientists have made significant findings concerning the amygdala in the human brain. Consensus of data shows the amygdala has a substantial role in mental states, and is related to many psychological disorders A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern associated with distress or disability that occurs in an individual and is not a part of normal development or culture. The recognition and understanding of mental health conditions has changed over time and across cultures, and there are still variations in the. In a 2003 study, subjects with Borderline personality disorder Borderline personality disorder is a personality disorder described as a prolonged disturbance of personality function in a person (generally over the age of eighteen years, although it is also found in adolescents), characterized by depth and variability of moods. The disorder typically involves unusual levels of instability in mood; black and showed significantly greater left amygdala activity than normal control subjects. Some borderline patients even had difficulties classifying neutral faces or saw them as threatening.^[20] Individuals with psychopathy Psychopathy is a personality disorder characterized by an abnormal lack of empathy combined with strongly amoral conduct, masked by an ability to appear outwardly normal. Neither psychopathy, nor the similar concept of sociopathy, are nowadays defined in international diagnostic manuals, which instead describe a category of antisocial/dissocial show reduced autonomic responses, relative to comparison individuals, to instructed fear cues.^[21] In 2006, researchers observed hyperactivity Hyperactivity can be described as a physical state in which a person is abnormally and easily excitable or exuberant. Strong emotional reactions, impulsive behavior, and sometimes a short span of attention are also typical for a hyperactive person. Some individuals may show these characteristics naturally, as personality differs from person to in the amygdala when patients were shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations. Patients with more severe social phobia Social anxiety disorder (DSM-IV 300.23), also sometimes called social phobia (SP), is an anxiety disorder characterized by intense fear in social situations causing considerable distress and impaired ability to function in at least some parts of daily life. The diagnosis can be of a specific disorder (when only some particular situations are showed a correlation with increased response in the amygdala.^[22] Similarly, depressed patients showed exaggerated left amygdala activity when interpreting emotions for all faces, and especially for fearful faces. Interestingly, this hyperactivity was normalized when patients went on antidepressants An antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. Drugs including the monoamine oxidase inhibitors , tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), tetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and.^[23] By contrast, the amygdala has been observed to relate differently in people with Bipolar Disorder Bipolar disorder or manic–depressive disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or more episodes of abnormally elevated energy levels, cognition, and mood and one or more depressive episodes. The elevated moods are clinically referred to as mania or, if milder, hypomania. A 2003 study found that adult and adolescent bipolar patients tended to have considerably smaller amygdala volumes and somewhat smaller hippocampal The hippocampus is a major component of the brains of humans and other mammals. It belongs to the limbic system and plays important roles in long-term memory and spatial navigation. Like the cerebral cortex, with which it is closely associated, it is a paired structure, with mirror-image halves in the left and right sides of the brain. In humans volumes.^[24] Many studies have focused on the connections between the amygdala and autism Autism is a disorder of neural development characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. These signs all begin before a child is three years old. Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; how this occurs is not.^[25] Additional studies have shown a link between the amygdala and schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness characterized by a disintegration of the process of thinking, of contact with reality, and of emotional responsiveness. It most commonly manifests as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking with significant social or occupational dysfunction. Onset of, noting that the right amygdala is significantly larger than the left in schizophrenic patients.^[26]

Studies in 2004 and 2006 showed that normal subjects exposed to images of frightened faces or faces of people from another race will show increased activity of the amygdala, even if that exposure is subliminal.^[27][28] However, the amygdala is not necessary for the processing of fear-related stimuli, since persons in whom it is bilaterally damaged show rapid reactions to fearful faces, even in the absence of a functional amygdala.^[29]

Recent research suggests that parasites, in particular toxoplasma, form cysts in the brain of rats, often taking up residence in the amygdala. This may provide clues as to how specific parasites may contribute to the development of disorders, including paranoia.^[30]

Social cognition

The amygdala processes reactions to personal space violations, and these reactions are absent in persons in whom the amygdala is damaged bilaterally.^[31] Furthermore, the amygdala is found to be activated in fMRI when people observe that others are physically close to them–such as when a person being scanned knows that an experimenter is standing immediately next to the scanner, rather than standing at a distance.^[31]

Alcoholism and binge drinking

The amygdala appears to play a role in binge drinking, being damaged by repeated episodes of intoxication and withdrawal.^[32] Alcoholism is associated with dampened activation in brain networks responsible for emotional processing, including the amygdala.^[33] Protein kinase C-epsilon in the amygdala appears to be critical for the development of high ethanol intake.^[34]

See also

• Amygdala hijack
• BELBIC
• List of regions in the human brain

References

1. ^ amygdala - Definitions from Dictionary.com
2. ^ University of Idaho College of Science (2004). "amygdala". http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/med532/amygdala.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
3. ^ ^{a b c d} Amunts K, Kedo O, Kindler M, Pieperhoff P, Mohlberg H, Shah N, Habel U, Schneider F, Zilles K (2005). "Cytoarchitectonic mapping of the human amygdala, hippocampal region and entorhinal cortex: intersubject variability and probability maps". Anat Embryol (Berl) 210 (5-6): 343–52. doi:10.1007/s00429-005-0025-5. PMID 16208455.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Ben Best (2004). "The Amygdala and the Emotions". http://www.benbest.com/science/anatmind/anatmd9.html. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
5. ^ ^{a b} Solano-Castiella E, Anwander A, Lohmann G, Weiss M, Docherty C, Geyer S, Reimer E, Friederici AD, Turner R (2010). "Diffusion tensor imaging segments the human amygdala in vivo". Neuroimage 49 (4): 2958–65. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.11.027. PMID 19931398.
6. ^ See Amygdala in the BrainInfo database
7. ^ Larry W. Swanson and Gorica D. Petrovich (August 1998). "What is the amygdala?". Trends in Neurosciences 21 (8): 323–331. doi:10.1016/S0166-2236(98)01265-X.
8. ^ Michael McDannald, Erin Kerfoot, Michela Gallagher, and Peter C. Holland (February 2005). "Amygdala central nucleus function is necessary for learning but not expression of conditioned visual orienting". Behav Neurosci 119 (1): 202–212. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.119.1.202. PMID 15727525. PMC 1255918. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1255918. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
9. ^ Paton, Joseph; et Al. (25 November 2005). "The primate amygdala represents the positive and negative value of visual stimuli during learning". Nature 439 (7078): 865–870. doi:10.1038/nature04490. PMID 16482160. PMC 2396495. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7078/abs/nature04490.html.
10. ^ See recent TINS article by Balleine and Killcross (2006)
11. ^ "Researchers Prove A Single Memory Is Processed In Three Separate Parts Of The Brain" http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/02/060202182107.htm
12. ^ Ferry B, Roozendaal B, McGaugh J (1999). "Role of norepinephrine in mediating stress hormone regulation of long-term memory storage: a critical involvement of the amygdala". Biol Psychiatry 46 (9): 1140–52. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00157-2. PMID 10560021.
13. ^ Killcross S, Robbins T, Everitt B (1997). "Different types of fear-conditioned behaviour mediated by separate nuclei within amygdala". Nature 388 (6640): 377–80. doi:10.1038/41097. PMID 9237754.
14. ^ "Cultivating compassion: Neuroscientific and behavioral approaches" a talk given by Richard J. Davidson found online at http://ccare.stanford.edu/node/25
15. ^ Asari T, Konishi S, Jimura K, Chikazoe J, Nakamura N, Miyashita Y. (2010). Amygdalar enlargement associated with unique perception. Cortex. 46:94–99. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2008.08.001 PMID 18922517
16. ^ Brown, S. & Shafer, E. (1888). "An investigation into the functions of the occipital and temporal lobes of the monkey's brain.". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London: Biological Sciences 179: 303–327. doi:10.1098/rstb.1888.0011.
17. ^ Kluver, H. & Bucy, P. (1939). "Preliminary analysis of function of the temporal lobe in monkeys.". Archives of Neurology 42: 979–1000.
18. ^ Bucher, K., Myersn, R., Southwick, C. (1970). "Anterior temporal cortex and maternal behaviour in monkey.". Neurology 20: 415.
19. ^ Aggleton, JP. & Passingham, RE. (1981). "Syndrome produced by lesions of the amygdala in monkeys (Macaca mulatta).". Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 95 (6): 961–977. doi:10.1037/h0077848. PMID 7320283.
20. ^ Donegan et al.; Sanislow, CA; Blumberg, HP; Fulbright, RK; Lacadie, C; Skudlarski, P; Gore, JC; Olson, IR et al. (2003). "Amygdala hyperreactivity in borderline personality disorder: implications for emotional dysregulation.". Biological Psychiatry 54 (11): 1284–1293. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00636-X. PMID 14643096.
21. ^ R. J. R. Blair (23 April 2008). "The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex: functional contributions and dysfunction in psychopathy". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 363 (1503): 2557–2565. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0027. PMID 18434283.
22. ^ Studying Brain Activity Could Aid Diagnosis Of Social Phobia. Monash University. January 19, 2006.
23. ^ Sheline et al.; Barch, DM; Donnelly, JM; Ollinger, JM; Snyder, AZ; Mintun, MA (2001). "Increased amygdala response to masked emotional faces in depressed subjects resolves with antidepressant treatment: an fMRI study.". Biological Psychiatry 50 (9): 651–658. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01263-X. PMID 11704071.
24. ^ Blumberg et al.; Kaufman, J; Martin, A; Whiteman, R; Zhang, JH; Gore, JC; Charney, DS; Krystal, JH et al. (2003). "Amygdala and hippocampal volumes in adolescents and adults with bipolar disorder". Arch Gen Psychiatry 60 (12): 1201–8. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.12.1201. PMID 14662552.
25. ^ Schultz RT (2005). "Developmental deficits in social perception in autism: the role of the amygdala and fusiform face area". Int J Dev Neurosci 23 (2–3): 125–41. doi:10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.12.012. PMID 15749240.
26. ^ Tanskanen, P; Veijola, JM; Piippo, UK; Haapea, M; Miettunen, JA; Pyhtinen, J; Bullmore, ET; Jones, PB et al. (2005). "Hippocampus and amygdala volumes in schizophrenia and other psychoses in the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort". Schizophrenia Research 75 (2): 283–294. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2004.09.022. PMID 15885519. http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/schres/article/PIIS0920996404003755/abstract.
27. ^ Williams, Leanne M.; Belinda J. Liddell, Andrew H. Kemp, Richard A. Bryant, Russell A. Meares, Anthony S. Peduto, Evian Gordon (2006). "Amygdala-prefrontal dissociation of subliminal and supraliminal fear". Human Brain Mapping 27 (8): 652–661. doi:10.1002/hbm.20208. PMID 16281289.
28. ^ Brain Activity Reflects Complexity Of Responses To Other-race Faces, Science Daily, 14 December 2004
29. ^ Tsuchiya N, Moradi F, Felsen C, Yamazaki M, Adolphs R. (2009). Intact rapid detection of fearful faces in the absence of the amygdala. Nat Neurosci. 12:1224-12225. PMID 19718036
30. ^ Vyas et al.; Kim, SK; Giacomini, N; Boothroyd, JC; Sapolsky, RM (2007). "Behavioral changes induced by Toxoplasma infection of rodents are highly specific to aversion of cat odors". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 104 (15): 6442–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.0608310104. PMID 17404235.
31. ^ ^{a b} Kennedy DP, Gläscher J, Tyszka JM, Adolphs R. (2009). Personal space regulation by the human amygdala. Nat Neurosci. 12:1226-1227. PMID 19718035 doi:10.1038/nn.2381
32. ^ http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1507/3169.long
33. ^ Marinkovic K; Oscar-Berman M, Urban T, O'Reilly CE, Howard JA, Sawyer K, Harris GJ (November 2009). "Alcoholism and dampened temporal limbic activation to emotional faces". Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33 (11): 1880–92. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01026.x. PMID 19673745.
34. ^ Lesscher et al, Amygdala protein kinase C epsilon controls alcohol consumption http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122210376/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0

External links

• Media related to amygdala at Wikimedia Commons
• BrainMaps at UCDavis amygdala

• Scholarpedia article by Dr. Joseph LeDoux
• NIF Search - Amygdala via the Neuroscience Information Framework

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